Amid
the turbulent religious waters of the West, we often pass over the astonishing
progress, and lapses, visible in the religious atmosphere of the Eastern hemisphere.
We’re numb to news of religious extremism in countries like Pakistan and Iran,
while we’ve become accustomed to the strength of atheism in Sweden, Denmark,
and the Netherlands. Spanning both Europe and Asia, Turkey has become a fusion of
both these worlds, demonstrating a peculiar mix of secular headway and alarming
religious upheaval.
During
the 7th and 8th centuries, Arab armies established the
Islamic Empire, and through their conquests created a strong Islamic foundation
in Turkey, which has remained, unattested, to this day. As the most religious
country in Europe, Turkey boasts approximately a 98% Islamic following. It is
astounding, then, to consider how secularism was quite literally (and successfully) thrown upon
Turkey overnight. This was largely, if not exclusively, due to the incredible
leadership of Mustafa Kemal – now affectionately called Atatürk, meaning “Father of the
Turks”. After leading the Turkish War of Independence, Atatürk became President
of Turkey in 1923. At the declaration, crowds shouted “We are returning to the days of the first caliphs!” – precisely the opposite of what was to come.
Atatürk believed
Islam was a barrier to the country's progress, and immediately began fighting to minimize the religion’s role in Turkey. On March 3rd, 1924, Atatürk
abolished the caliphate, claiming that there was no religious or political
justification for the caliph’s power, which included a personal military and
treasury. The equivalent of suddenly abolishing the role of the Pope and the
Vatican, this had widespread effects in the Muslim world. Other Islamic nations
convened in Cairo on May 1926, and declared that the caliphate
was a necessity in Islam, yet no new caliph was ever appointed, or has been since.
Atatürk next
abolished the Sharia legal system, replacing it with a system mirroring those
of Switzerland and Italy. Then, he changed the weekly day of rest from Friday
(the Islamic holy day) to Sunday, to match the West. It should also be
mentioned that he changed the written language of Turkey from Arabic to Latin,
despite the implications this held for the Koran, which is only considered the Koran when in Arabic. To finish off this list of
achievements, I’ll mention that in 1934, Atatürk gave women the right to vote,
long before much of the civilized world.
Remarkably, people
accepted his radical secular position because he was still viewed as a hero
from his leadership in the War of Independence. However, the government’s power
could only solidify such hasty social changes in urban areas. Atatürk believed
that rapid secularization in the cities would spread outward to rural Turkey. Unfortunately,
this was not the case, and by the time Atatürk’s Republican People’s Party lost
power, the secularization of Turkey was not universal, and still held much
opposition.
The way in which the
Republican People’s Party lost power was as intriguing as any of Atatürk’s
religious policies. In 1945, (seven years after Atatürk’s death), Atatürk’s successor
İsmet İnönü formally invited the formation
of opposing political parties – ending the Turkish one party system. There had
been no demonstrations in the streets and no political unrest; İnönü thrust democracy upon a complacent nation. I
recently traveled to Turkey, and I had the opportunity to meet Professor Sabri
Sayarı, who teaches political science at Sabancı University – one of the top
three universities in Turkey. He had interviewed İnönü shortly
before his death. At the time, some of his colleagues thought İnönü had
given Turkey democracy because of implicit pressure from the growing middle class, while
others thought that there was rising pressure from other nations for Turkey to
abolish its single party system in order to join the UN. However, İnönü
told him that “From the very beginning, we [İnönü and Atatürk] believed Turkey should be a free
country…” but that they had needed to establish power before founding
democracy.
Despite the secular progress Atatürk brought to Turkey, many still ignorantly consider
him a Muslim. However, he was openly – even fiercely - an atheist. The following
quotes best exemplify his personal thoughts on religion.
“I have no religion, and at times I wish all
religions at the bottom of the sea. He is a weak ruler who needs religion to
uphold his government; it is as if he would catch his people in a trap. My
people are going to learn the teachings of science.... Let them worship as they
will; every man can follow his own conscience, provided it does not interfere
with sane reason or bid him act against the liberty of his fellow man.”
“For nearly five
hundred years, these rules and theories of an Arab Shaikh and the
interpretations of generations of lazy and good-for-nothing priests have
decided the civil and criminal law of Turkey. They have decided the form of the
Constitution, the details of the lives of each Turk, his food, his hours of
rising and sleeping the shape of his clothes, the routine of the midwife who
produced his children, what he learned in his schools, his customs, his
thoughts-even his most intimate habits. This theology of an immoral Arab
[presented as Islam] is a dead thing. Possibly it might have suited tribes in
the desert. It is no good for modern, progressive state. God's revelation!
There is no God! These are only the chains by which the priests and bad rulers
bound the people down. A ruler who needs religion is a weaklings. No weaklings
should rule!”
Yet “weaklings” gained
power in 2002, and have controlled the government ever since. The AKP, a socially
conservative, religious political party, has been unraveling Atatürk’s progress for the past ten years. The fact that this government firmly claims to be secular is laughable. Children are forced to learn prayers and Sunni practices in public schools, and while "religious institutions" are banned, the government controls an explicitly Sunni private school. There are plenty more examples of how religion and government are intertwined, but the most overt are the calls to prayer broadcast by loudspeaker five times a day across Turkey. In the cities where I stayed during my visit, the calls were just background noise, ignored by all.
It's hard to imagine how rapidly Turkey has turned away from Atatürk’s reforms, but it comes down to simple demographics and population density. Turkey
has seen extensive migration from rural to urban areas, and these migrants
bring conservatism with them. Even today, Istanbul’s population increases by
2,000 per month, as people continue to move from Anatolia into the city. The AKP currently holds nearly 50% of votes, mainly due to Turkey’s economic success in
the decade accompanying their governmental control. According to Professor Sayarı,
the less educated population gives the greatest support to the AKP, while
college educated Turks oppose the party. Still, Sayarı suspects that many
educated Turks still vote for the AKP simply because of the economic success of
the past years. Although this success is quite evident, the social changes the
party endorses represent a dangerous backlash against Atatürk’s reforms. The
AKP objects to “immoral” television shows, supports women wearing headscarves,
and is pushing for more religion in education (even though children are already
required to learn prayers and Sunni practices in public schools).
My friend Orhan Taşkiran, who lives in Istanbul, calls the AKP, “The
perfect government”. This is, at least in part, due to his 19 year old sister,
who wears a headscarf. She told me that in the city she’s looked down upon,
especially considering the university she attends has a Western mindset. Strangely, women who work in the public sector in Turkey are banned from wearing headscarves - due to a law meant to curtail discrimination. (I still can't understand how this was upheld by the European Court of Human Rights). It’s hard
to grasp how Atatürk created such a secular atmosphere in one of the most
religious countries in the world – to the extent that openly devout Muslims
face discrimination. After speaking with her, it was easy to see why she supports
the AKP. Although the previous secular government never hindered the rights of
those who wore headscarves, the westernized urban culture has, quite disappointingly,
tended toward discrimination rather than openness towards this minority.
May 19th was the Commemoration of Atatürk, Youth and Sports Day – a national holiday in
Turkey marking the beginning of the War of Independence. I was in İzmir at the
time, and had the incredible experience of joining a youth protest against AKP
controlled government and the merging of religion and politics. While carrying
a block-long Turkish banner through the streets of Selçuk, and chanting what
roughly translates to “Atatürk is the soldier of the people” in lousy Turkish, it
was clear to me that Turkey still has hope of becoming a secular leader in the Middle
East. Although this protest remained peaceful, others weren’t as fortunate.
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| Like this ... except with one banner and less people |
Despite the heavy
Islamic presence, a minority Christian influence is still visible in Turkey –
largely due to Paul’s supposed influence in the area. One of the more laughable
incarnations of this influence is the so called “House of the Virgin Mary.” In
short, a 19th century Catholic nun reportedly had a vision of the
house where Mary died, and over half a century later a French priest
interpreted a building on Mt.
Koressos to fit the description. Now, it serves as a Christian pilgrimage
site and holy water money machine.
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Holy water mud |
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Representin'
Another historically questionable attraction is the Basilica
of Saint John. However, I was rather impressed by the humble nature of the
location. It cost 8 TL (about $4) to enter the ruins, but there was no gift
shop, vendors, or general pomp that I had come to expect. Even the supposed
grave of John was simple and unadorned (perhaps because it’s known that there’s
no body within). This is how religious sites should be – quiet, unassuming, and
out of your pocket. Thankfully the location’s tradition of selling dust to
pilgrims seems to have died out.
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The most interesting Christian site in Turkey was, of
course, the Hagia Sophia, the famous basilica-turned-mosque in Istanbul. When
the Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453, the building was converted into
a mosque, but much of the Christian mosaics and artifacts have been restored,
despite the extensive looting and Islamic refurbishing. It’s interesting to
think that when we picture the typical mosque, such as the Sultan Ahmed (pictured below), the architecture was heavily
influenced by this Christian basilica. Nowadays the site is a museum, thanks to
Atatürk, no less.
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| Women are required to cover their heads and ankles inside the mosques |
Turkey is a country
where women are judged for their headwear, where calls to prayer are blasted
five times a day on loudspeaker, where the government forces Islam to be taught
in schools, and where only two percent of the population speaks English but
everyone knows the word “secular”. This eastern nation will undoubtedly lead its neighbors
in the coming years, and let us not pray, but write, speak, and act – so that Atatürk’s secular vision can be realized.
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